![]() ![]() It has also been shown that matrix elasticity can be used to select cells by type and to direct the differentiation of stem cells. In this way, cells can feel the stiffness of their substrates and then respond by remodeling the cytoskeleton and changing the expression of adhesion molecules. When a cell attaches to a substrate with adhesion molecules on the cell membrane, such as integrins, the cytoskeleton transmits traction forces between the multiple attachment sites, which deform the culture substrate according to its stiffness. ![]() In addition, the shear modulus, G, of materials used as cell culture substrates, whether 2-D or 3-D, helps determine cell phenotype and stem cell fate. For example, the Young’s modulus, E, of a material used to aid in bone reconstruction must be much higher than that of a gel used to prevent abdominal tissue adhesions. ![]() In medical applications, the stiffness of the implanted material should roughly match that of the tissue it replaces. The material properties of these hydrogels contribute to their usefulness in various applications. Additional benefits come from tissue culture materials with the ability to be remodeled as cells degrade the matrix and replace it with ECM components of their own making. These sECM gels provide a three-dimensional (3-D) environment, in which cells can grow, proliferate, and migrate, that simulates the in vivo environment more closely than two-dimensional (2-D) surfaces, such as tissue culture plastic. All rights reserved.Synthetic extracellular matrix (sECM) hydrogels can be used for three-dimensional cell culture, wound repair, and tissue engineering. In this review, we focused on developed or developing modalities used to improve mechanical properties of various bone scaffolds and matrices based on common crosslinking reagents.īiopolymeric scaffold Bone tissue engineering Crosslinking.Ĭopyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. Therefore, developing more efficient crosslinking materials and methods are desirable to obtain crosslinked scaffolds with perfect properties in bone tissue engineering from different biopolymers such as collagen, gelatin, cellulose, chitosan, alginate, etc. By keeping this limit in mind, green chemicals or natural crosslinking agents have been shown to provide desired improvements in mechanical properties of bone scaffolds. Glutaraldehyde is a widely-used chemical crosslinker with unique ability to crosslink a wide variety of biomaterials however, many contradictory views have been recently raised on its cytotoxic effects. Although crosslinking through chemical reactions improves the mechanical properties of bone substitutes, most of the reagents used for this aim demonstrate undesirable effects and may exert toxic reactions. ![]() Crosslinking, defined as induction of chemical or physical links among polymer chains, is a simple method generally used to modify mechanical, biological and degradation properties of hydrogels. However, lack of sufficient or poor mechanical properties such as low integrity and stability reduces their medical applications. Bone tissue scaffolds made from either natural or synthetic polymers are employed to promote bone healing. ![]()
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